Are there Aspects of Science that are still Alien to us?

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In July 2012, CERN (European Council for Nuclear Research) which is primarily involved in understanding the fundamental structure of particles (particle physics) observed a new particle, the Higgs Boson. This was a massive achievement as it proved that the Higgs field[1] exists. Why was it significant? After the Big Bang, all elementary particles were massless but soon after, some particles got their mass. In 1960s, some physicists proposed that a force field came into action soon after the Big Bang. When the particles interacted with this field, the particles got mass.[2] Why was mass that important? A massless electron would not be trapped by a proton to form a hydrogen atom. Without hydrogen atoms, we wouldn’t have the stars, galaxies and life. Using accelerators such as Large Hadron Collider[3], physicists attempted to observe the field by producing its quantum particle (the Higgs Boson). They attempted this by colliding particles at high energy. When they did these several thousands of times, they observed the particle, which proved that the Higgs field exists. There was something conclusive on how elementary particles got their mass!

More often than not, such astounding achievements are followed by more questions, which are soaked in mystery for decades together. Or, this discovery could be just the beginning to answer other phenomena that have evaded scientific understanding, such as: why has matter exceeded anti-matter or could dark matter and other new particles be found due to their interaction with Higgs Boson[4]? We have several phenomena that beg a scientific explanation (two of which we have just mentioned) but science has just not been able to answer why? We look at some such phenomena across physics, neurosciences and biology.

Since we broached dark matter[5], we start with that first. There is light-emitting matter in the universe, which astrophysicists have typically observed through telescopes. The light that planets, stars and whole galaxies radiate, helps us decipher more about them. The full range of light frequencies is seen in the electro-magnetic spectrum. But there happens to be matter, which does not emit any light (not detected on the electro-magnetic spectrum) and therefore we are unable to observe it with telescopes. But we know that this matter exists because it seems to affect the movement of stars in the galaxies. Just like in our Solar System (where there is the gravitational pull of the Sun), objects away from the centre should be moving slower in other galaxies too. But it was found that stars away from the centre were moving faster than was initially thought. This could only be if there is more mass in the outer part of the galaxy, which we are not able to observe with our telescopes.

Another way we know the existence of Dark Matter, is because its gravity makes regular matter to collect and build into stars and galaxies. By observing how the gravity of large galaxy clusters (which have dark matter), bend light of galaxies, which are located behind the former set of galaxy clusters, we can detect the presence of dark matter (also called gravitational lensing[6]) But what dark matter exactly is, we still don’t know. The most interesting part is, it comprises 27 % of the composition of the universe. Only 5% is normal matter (which we know) and the balance is dark energy which is a whopping 68%![7]

Dark Energy[8] is one other area, which science is yet to decipher. Gravity should slow the expansion of the universe was what was originally imagined, as universe comprises matter and gravity pulls matter together. But it was discovered in late 1990s that the expansion of the universe was accelerating. Something was causing this acceleration. People wondered if it had to do with what Einstein suggested: that empty space could possess its own energy. As space expanded, there would be more energy and this would cause the expansion of the universe. There are many more theories as to what this dark energy is but nothing conclusive so far. What we know for sure, is what we know as normal matter, which science believes is only 5% of the entire universe.

One other area where scientific understanding is not complete is, Black Holes. Black holes are typically formed when a huge star dies and leaves behind a core. If the mass of this core is more than 3 times that of the Sun, then it produces such a gravitational pull that can overpower all other forces, resulting in a black hole.[9] As mentioned, the intensely strong gravitational pull ensures nothing can escape it, including light. They can be extraordinarily large, can merge with other black holes and collision with other black holes can interestingly be detected through gravitational wave detectors. As no light can escape from a black hole, we can’t observe such a collision with a telescope. As they are just orbiting, we may not be able to detect them through the above tool, but when they merge, the stronger gravitational waves emitted, makes it possible.[10] Black holes have something called an event horizon, which is a threshold/boundary. If something crosses this surface, it can’t come back. Once inside the black hole, the gravity gets stronger and finally becomes infinitely strong, which is referred to as a point called singularity. While all of the above sounds like we know quite a bit about them, what we still don’t know is what actually happens inside a black hole and why black holes exist on 2 very different size scales[11] – 1) There are innumerable black holes, 10-24 times as massive as the Sun 2) Super massive black holes which are millions/billions of times as massive as the Sun.

Matter-Antimatter asymmetry[12] is another unresolved problem and extremely interesting. Right after the Big Bang, particles of matter and anti-matter[13] kept buzzing into and out of existence. Matter and anti-matter particles are always produced as a pair; but if they come into contact with one another, destroy each other and leave behind pure energy. The paradox is that, if they are created and destroyed together, then the universe should contain only energy. But some part of matter remained, why is the question? If something intervened and caused matter to exist more than anti-matter, then we are yet to figure out what that thing was.

Are we alone in the universe is another recurring question and which remains unsolved? A critical question in this regard becomes what do we categorize as life and what signs are associated with the concept called “life” in various parts of Earth. Can we then take these signs to see if life exists elsewhere? In this regard, NASA has proposed a scale to evaluate sign of life[14]. Some levels of this scale are indicated here:

Level 1 – Sign of life being – detection of a biologically relevant molecule on a celestial body

Level 2 – Ensure the above finding is not the result of instrument contamination on Earth

Level 3 – This sign should be seen in an environment such as say, an ancient lakebed on Earth

The above levels go on, till more profound findings are reached such as a second independent detection of life on that celestial body.

The above were some larger questions about the Universe and naturally lead us to the conclusion that there is much to know about the origin of life and also in which direction the universe is headed – this incidentally is one of the major unsolved problems. A paper on ‘Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology’ shares some of the unsolved problems in Biology, which includes Origin of Life amongst various other areas such as evolution and the genetics of brain wiring (from the molecular level to the mind)[15]

Having embarked on the above issues, the question that naturally comes up is: do we understand ourselves? The human brain, for instance (touching upon the field of Neurosciences). Apparently, not. There are also debates about: what does it mean to understand the brain?[16] Should we look at its functions? (Memory, thinking, processing information) Should we look at the algorithms that make these functions possible? Should we say that we have understood the brain when we can measure what’s actually happening with each of the functions? Other questions could straddle between the fields of science and what we would call esoteric for now; where is the mind located? How does it assume its state of uniqueness in each individual?

Coming back to the human brain, what causes conscious experience of anything – what actually happens in the brain that makes us register something as an experience? It seems that our advances in understanding of the human brain are critical in answering many other unsolved problems why do we sleep and dream? What causes psychiatric and neurological illnesses? Can we build a human brain and would that be a final indicator of our understanding of it?[17]

Neurodegenerative disorders – disabling effect on some parts of the brain, can be truly debilitating. Neurons are very critical to the brain and ensure that we lead a normal life – communicating and engaging in various actions. These disorders result in the death of neurons and due to the complexity of these disorders, their cause is also enshrouded in mystery. Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease and Dementia are some examples. Stem cells (special type of cells that can develop into different types of cells) can be used to replace dead neurons and this could be the spark of light we are looking for, but scientists are still working on getting this right and there has been no effective therapy as yet[18]. What must be acknowledged from the above discussion is that understanding ourselves is really essential for both psychological and physical health and well-being. There is much progress to be made in this regard.

Let us come to the world of nature. 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the Ocean but ‘more than 80% of the ocean has never been mapped, explored or seen by humans[19]! There are deep sea explorers who are engaged in designing vehicles to explore areas never visited by humans. It is interesting that the intensity of space exploration far exceeds the intensity of ocean exploration, although it is on our planet! Exploration technology development and overcoming the challenges of no sunlight at greater depths and high pressure would be critical.

We have barely touched on a few areas which are currently beleaguering science. It is not only to appreciate the extent of what we don’t know and the vastness of the universe we live in, but also the tremendous opportunities available to science for progress. These are exciting times for science students who are being exposed to transforming theories and opportunities to discover truths for themselves in fields that cut across various disciplinary boundaries.

Some Interesting Facts and Terms

Hubble Space Telescope – Telescopes have a particular range of light they can detect. Hubble can detect ultraviolet, to visible light and near-infrared. This ability has allowed for 1.5 million observations till date. It has looked at locations more than 13.4 billion light years from the Earth.

James Webb Space Telescope – The world’s largest and most powerful space telescope. The clearest image till date of the early universe (13 billion years ago) was released to public in July 2022; captured by this Telescope, launched into space in December, 2021.

Oceanographers study all aspects of the Ocean and use chemistry, geology, meteorology, biology and other branches of science for this purpose. From marine ecosystems; formation of seafloor (which can help in earthquake and tsunami prediction) and chemical composition of the oceans, which are affected by human activity, they study a wide variety of issues.  

Astrophysicists study all celestial objects including our solar system; stars; galaxies and everything about the universe. This could be even exploring for life outside of our planet; origin and composition of universe and evolution of celestial bodies. They study temperatures, density, luminosity and other such attributes of objects; primarily drawing from physics and chemistry. 

Astrobiologists seek to find the origin, evolution and distribution of life in the universe. It includes the study of origin of life on Earth and possibility of life beyond Earth. Some of this is done by looking at life in extreme conditions on Earth itself.


[1] Proposed as a new kind of field, in 1964, that fills the entire universe (home.web.cern.ch)

[2] home.web.cern.ch/science/physics/higgs-boson/what

[3] World’s largest and highest energy particle collider located in Switzerland

[4] Home.web.cern.ch/science/physics/higgs-boson

[5] V.P.Bhathe et al; How Do Scientists Know Dark Matter Exists?, 2021

[6] Nasa.gov/content/discoveries-highlights-shining-a-light-on-dark-matter

[7] Science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy

[8] Science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy

[9] Science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes

[10] Now.tufts.edu

[11] Ibid footnote 8

[12] Home.cern/science/physics/matter-antimatter-asymmetry-problem

[13] Both particles share the same mass, but differ in some other ways, such as electric charge

[14] Nasa.gov/feature, October 2021

[15] S.B.Dev, Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology – Unsolved Problems in Biology – The State of Current

    Thinking, 2015

[16] R. Adolphs, The Unsolved Problems of Neuroscience, 2015

[17] ibid

[18] L.Zhao et al, Neural Stem Cell Therapy for Brain Disease, 2021

[19] Education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ocean